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段落的线性特征与层状结构之分析:段落轴和线性轴

发布时间:2019-01-13 16:14:38 影响了:

  摘 要:英语段落的线性特征与层状结构分析是语篇分析的重要内容,弄清段落内的句子与句子之间的逻辑关系,把握段落的框架结构,将有助于透彻理解文章内涵,快速提高学生的英语阅读能力。
  关键词:语篇分析 段落结构 线性特征 层状结构 阅读能力
  
  阅读是通过视觉感知语言信息信号后大脑处理、加工与理解信息意义的心理过程。克拉克夫妇(1978)认为:对语言输入中词、短语和句子的理解是第一层次的理解。这一理解被称为构建过程;同时读者还要进行第二层次的理解,即不仅要了解字面意义,还要了解作者的意图。克拉克夫妇将此称之为利用过程。很显然,第二层次的理解是建立在第一层次理解的基础之上的。没有一定的语言基础知识,分不清段落结构,即使有很强的母语阅读技巧,也很难把握作者的意图、段落的主旨。而目前很多学生的阅读方式是逐字逐字式的(word for word),这种抠字眼式的阅读虽然能加强对局部意义的理解,但对语篇理解是不利的,整体意义则显得支离破碎,且阅读效率低下,无助于阅读能力的提高。
  因此,文章段落的理解与把握是阅读理解中基础而又重要的问题,因为段落是语篇的重要组成部分。本文将从语篇分析中的段落结构角度出发,来说明把握段落结构将有助于阅读能力的提高。
  
  一、段落的线性特征与层状结构
  
  自从索绪尔在二十世纪初创立了结构主义语言学以来,人们对语言研究的范围开始转向了比词更大的单位-段落与篇章。1976年韩礼德-哈桑合著的《英语中的衔接》(Cohesion in English)一书为篇章结构研究开创了新局面。他们提出了衔接理论。认为语篇内的句子与句子之间是通过所指(reference)、替换(substitution)、省略(ellipsis)、连接词语(conjunction)和词汇衔接(lexical cohesion)五种手段来衔接的。这五种手段在语言层面上表现为语法手段、词汇衔接及逻辑联系语。通过这些段落中的纽带,可清晰地看出段落的线性结构。
  “在人类语言中,每个语篇都是由排列成一直线的句子组成。”“语言的线形表现这一特征决定了发话者在传递信息时必须考虑语言结构的排列。无论从衔接角度还是从连贯角度,句子内各成分的排列和句子之间的配列都是有一定的规律的,都是受到制约的。一般来说,在语言结构的安排上,要遵循从已知(old)到未知(new);从确定(definite)到不确定(indefinite)的原则。”(黄国文1988)
  英语语篇的“直线型”的思维模式首先反映在段落中。英语的段落一般按一条直线展开。往往先陈述中心意思,而后分点说明。Durik等(1985)在讨论段落内句子直线性发展的连接方式时认为,英语段落中句子与句子之间有以下三种的基本关系结构:1. 一般与特殊(general and particular);2. 递进(progression);3. 相容(compatibility)。一般与特殊指的是叙述从一般出发,然后讨论特殊;递进关系指的是以时间先后,推理起结等为序;相容主要表现为匹配(matching)和对比(contrast)。可见段落中的意思以有秩序的顺序清晰地互相联系。在展开中心意思的过程中,段落中的每一个句子应该顺其自然地从每一个前面的句子产生出来。从理想的角度看,这样的段落有一种运动的感觉,即“流动感觉”。(王昭2002)。如:
  Tom gets up at six in the morning .He dresses,washes and goes out to do morning exercises. Then he has breakfast. 这是以时间为序的线性关系结构。
  有时作者为了表达更为复杂的观点时,还要作纵向阐述。这样段落的结构在线性的基础上呈现了层状的状态。Bander(1978)在《美国英语修辞》一书中介绍道:“英文段落通常以一个包含中心思想的陈述句开始,称为主题句(topic sentence)然后把主题句的内容划分为一系列句子加以说明。”Ram-say(1986)也在《学术英语阅读基础技巧》一书中指出:“每一个段落有一个主题和中心思想。许多段落有主题句。主题句常常是段落的第一句,但它也可以在段落的结尾和中间部分。”(王枫林 2000)
  这些特征在结构层面上表现为段落的层状结构。“层次关系中的句子层层积累,而又上下照应。句子不是横向直线发展,而是有一种纵向的层次结构。这种语篇通常由几个层次的句子组成,并且有一个基础(常称作主题句topic sentence)把不同的层次贯穿起来。这样,语篇中的句子虽然并不处于同一层次上,但它们却围绕着一个中心。”(黄国文 1988)
  例如:San Francisco Chinatown played an important part in the life of the early Chinese immigrant. Within Chinatown,he was surrounded by people who spoke his language and understood his ways. Within Chinatown,the theaters,restaurants,gambling halls,pleasure palaces,and even opium parlors offered a way of escaping from the everyday trials of his work filled life. Within Chinatown,festivals like the gay and fancy New Year’s Festival helped him to break the routine of his work. These festivals provided times for blowing off steam,for releasing bottled up feelings. 第一句为主题句(topic sentence),其他句子从三个不同方面来进行展开,这些句子叫支撑句(supporting sentences)。
  
  二、从段落的层状结构分析入手,提高阅读理解能力
  
  大家知道每个段落都有一个主题(main idea),主题常常由主题句(topic sentence)来体现,段落的展开要围绕着这个主题来进行。段落除了有一个主题句(topic sentence)以外,往往还有次主题句(minor idea sentences),及用来论证、说明的支撑句子(supporting sentences)。在阅读时,这种清晰的段落层状结构给读者带来了方便。本文中我们把主题句(topic sentence)看作第一层次的语句(the first-power sentences),次主题句(minor sentences)看作第二层次的语句(the second-power sentences),支撑句(supporting sentences)看作第三层次的语句(the third-power sentences)。
  Topic sentence(s) →the first-power sentence(s)
  Minor sentence(s)→the second-power sentence(s)
  Supporting sentence(s) →the third-power sentence(s)
  例如:
  ①Language majors often have trouble writing in the language they are learning because of a combination of bad habits and high pressure. ②To start with,students don’t practice. ③This is partly because of time limitations:learning to write is time consuming,and students already have a very heavy workload.④Some students do have the time to practice but fail to do so because writing in the high-pressure atmosphere of college produces anxiety and tension. ⑤Many students are so afraid of the difficult work that they avoid writing altogether-until the day before the paper is due. ⑥Furthermore,college papers are usually done under time pressure,which simply increases the tension of writing.
  The first power sentence:①
  The second power sentence:② ⑥
  The third power sentence:③ ④ ⑤
  _______________①______________
  _________②________⑥__________
  ______③______④______⑤_______
  作者首先在段首提出观点:由于不良的写作习惯及学习压力,使得一些语言专业的学生不能运用自己所主修的语言进行写作。首先,文章从两大方面来进行说明。1. 学生不练习写作;2. 写作考试的时间限制增加了写作的焦虑。而后,作者对学生为什么不练习写作,又分别从三个不同方面来进一步说明。①作业过重,时间紧;②有些学生虽有时间可练习,但由于紧张的校园氛围带来的不安,致使写作练习无法完成;③还有很多同学本身对写作有恐惧感。这样全段层层递进,环环相扣,很好地例证了作者的观点。
  主题句在段中的位置一般有5种情况:段首,段中,段尾,段首与段尾,无主题句。如下图所示:
  
  图1表示的主题句在段首;图2表示的主题句在段尾;图3表示的主题句在段中;图4表示的主题句在段首及段尾;图5表示的是无主题句,主题隐含在段落之中。
  下面以主题句在段落中的不同位置来作进一步的分析
  1. 主题句位于段首
  作者一开始就提出观点,而后作例证、说明。如:
  ①There are three main kinds of mountains. ②One is volcanic. ③This is formed by the eruption of lava from within the earth. ④A second is the block mountain. ⑤This is formed by the cracking and shifting of the earth’s crust. ⑥A third type is the folded mountain.⑦ This is formed by the crumpling of the cracked and shifted rock.
  The first power sentence:①
  The second power sentence:②④⑥
  The third power sentence:③⑤⑦
  
  2. 主题句在段中
  作者先引出次要观点,而后提出主题,然后再例证、说明。如:
  ①The Bushmen in south Africa were food gathers and skilled hunters. ②They lived in small clans of fifty to three hundred people under the rule of a headman. ③They were one of two distinct cultural groups in south Africa during the mid seventeenth century. ④The other group was the Hottentots,nomadic cattle herders. ⑤The Hottentots were organized in small clans,each under the direction of an hereditary chief.
  The first power sentence:③
  The second power sentence:①④
  The third power sentence:②⑤
  
  3. 主题句在段尾
  作者先分析说明,最后总结。如:
  ①One unusual flying machine is the skimmer. ②This has no wings and looks like a boat. ③Another is the flying bed. ④With four legs and no wings,it actually looks like a bed. ⑤A thirdis the two in one. ⑥The two in one flies on wings like an airplane,but it also stands on its tail. ⑦A fourth is the hoppi copter. ⑧This is a little helicopter attached to a person’s back. ⑨These are a few of the various types of interesting flying machines that the United States has already developed.
  The first power sentence:⑨
  The second power sentence:①③⑤⑦
  The third power sentence: ②④⑥⑧
  
  4. 主题句在段首和段尾
  先在段首提出观点,而后例证;为了增加说服力,在结尾处再一次总结强调。如:
  ①Spanish-speaking Americans fall into four large groups. ②One group,the largest,is the Mexican American. ③This group came across the Rio Grande and settles in the Southwest. ④Puerto Ricans,the second group,settled mainly in New York city. ⑤The Voting Rights Act of 1965 gave them,along with other language speaking citizens,the right to vote without having to read and write English. ⑥Cubans,the third group,arrived in the early 1960’s. ⑦They were fleeing from Castro’s Cuba.⑧ Filipinos,the fourth group,settled mainly on the West coast. ⑨These four groups of Spanish speaking Americans make up one of the largest minority groups in the nation.
  The first power sentence:①⑨
  The second power sentence:②④⑥⑧
  The third power sentence:③⑤⑦
  
  5. 无主题句(隐含的主题句)
  整个段落无明显的主题句,所有语句都由一个隐含的主题来统率,形成一个整体。段内的任何一个语句都不能单独表达段落的主题。段落的主题需要读者自己去归纳总结。如:
  ①Both the lens of a camera and the lens of the human eye focus the light from an object. ②The camera lens is moved forward or backward until a sharp image falls exactly on the film;the lens of the eye has a muscle that changes the thickness of the lens for focus. ③Both pass light through a lightproof chamber. ④Both from an upside down picture of the object being viewed which,in man’s case,is corrected and made rightside up.
  The first power sentence: implied
  The second power sentence:①③④
  The third power sentence②
  
  The implied topic sentence should be:The lens of a camera and the lens of the human eye are much alike.
  从以上的段落层状结构分析可以看出,不同层次的句子之间往往有一定的衔接词。通过这些衔接词读者可以看出句子与句子之间的逻辑关系。这些词,有些语言学家把它们叫“信号词”(signals)。它们是理解语篇的“金钥匙”。
  我们把连接第二层次句子的衔接词叫the second-stage words
  我们把连接第三层次句子的衔接词叫 the third-stage words
  常见的the second-stage words有:
  first(ly),second(ly),third(ly),moreover,more than that,besides,furthermore,also,likewise,again,next,then,in addition to,some,others,still others,above all,another,equally,finally,lastly .etc.
  常见的the third-stage words有:
  that is,that is to say,nearly,specially,in such cases,this can be clarified,for example,to be specific,for instance,in other words,this can be explained,this can be made clearer,it should be noted,in such situations,it is necessary to pause here to .etc.
  
  三、段落结构的层状分析对阅读教学的启示
  
  教学实践证明:段落结构的层状分析,对于帮助学生理解文章,认清段落的主干和枝叶,做到合理、正确地推
  理、判断,提高阅读理解能力具有一定的现实意义。通过使用段落结构分析方法,段落内句子与句子之间的相互1关系和领属层次便清晰地展现在学生面前,使他们感到文章层次分明,脉络清晰,中心突出,主题一目了然。
  由于段落结构的层状分析属于整个语篇分析的低层,在具体的阅读教学中,要把段落结构的层状分析放到整个语篇中去完成。不仅要注意段落内的句列关系,还要注意段落与段落之间的逻辑关系,因为篇章是个语义整体单位。
  
  参考文献:
  [1]Bander,Robert G. American English Rhetoric[M]. Holt,Rinehert and Winston USA,1978.
  [2]Durik,R.et al . A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[M]. London:Longman Group Ltd,1985.
  [3]Nuttall,Christine. Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.
  [4]胡壮麟.语篇的衔接与连贯[M].上海:上海教育出版社,1994.
  [5]黄国文.语篇分析概要[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社,1988.31-32,64.
  [6]李秀英.语篇的图式结构与体裁分析的重要性[J].大连理工大学学报(社会科学版),2000,(3),64-67.
  [7]刘辰诞.教学篇章语言学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1999.
  [8]唐斌.英语信号词与篇章理解[J].华东交通大学学报,2004,�6�:132-135.
  [9]王枫林.英语语篇思维模式的规律及主要类型[J].四川教育学院学报,2000,(1,2):50-52.

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